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All the Lipids within the cellular membranes are existed in bilayer structure, but it has been proved that when some of these Lipids extracted from the native membrane and dispersed in water, it does exhibit non-bilayer structure, although the same Lipids have got bilayer structure in the membrane itself. It has been reported that some factors such as, enzymes (Lipase), temperature, change of pH and presence of some ions, some biochemical, biophysical and physiological variation, can convert the bilayer forming Lipids into the non-bilayer structure within the native membrane itself. Endocytotic vesicles are generated when segments of plasma membrane invaginated enclosing a minute volume of extracellular fluid and its contents. In exocytosis also remodeling of membrane is involved and most cells release macromolecules to the exterior by exocytosis, the processes of diffusion also happen with some Lipids change into the non-bilayer structure. The question that represent the subject of this review article is the way the Lipids in cellular membrane change their molecular structure from the bilayer to non-bilayer structure, to pave the way for the above processes.

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Monogalactosyl Diacylglycerol is a glycolipid and contain a high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acid substituents and form hexagonal structure when dispersed in excess water. Catalytic hydrogenation of this Lipid in the presence of catalyst completely saturates the hydrocarbon chains and the Lipid forms typical open sheet bilayer structure in water at 20?C. Binary mintures of native and hydrogenated Lipid tend to phase-separated at 20?C, our results which was obtained by electron microscope reveals lamellar phase Lipid indispersed with regions of hexagonal structure and the proportion of each reflect the composition of mixture. Monogalactosyl Diacylglycerol is one of those Lipids, which present in high amount in thylakoid membrane of chloroplast. This membrane and others they go through this kind transformation in their Lipid structure to enable the biochemical physiological functions of the cells.

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Mycobacterial diseases are among the oldest disease known to human beings. There are a lot of bitter memories of Mycobacterial invasion especially Tuberculosis and leprosy in human mind, even now after discovery of etiology, diagnostic tool, prevention, and treatment, still, the recalling the above diseases are frightening to human being. Although leprosy isn’t an serious disease nowadays but the TB after a long period of quietness, is going to be an serious risk factor for mankind, especially in third world countries, after cooperating with HIV. Some atypical Mycobacteria, which have weak pathogenicity now, adapt themselves to the new condition and present as a dangerous cause of disease. The researcher that have made themselves familiar with such Mycobacterial features, trying hard to discus carefully the specifities and weak points of these bacteria, to fight them back. The aim of this review article is to highlight one of Mycobacterial characteristic, which is bacteruosis slow growth rate.

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Biosynthetic growth hormone is now available in virtually unlimited quantities. As a result because of its growth promoting and anabolic effects, it is widely used in various disorders in both children and adults. Growth hormone has been proven to be beneficial in a small number of diseases causing short stature in children, and in adults with severe growth hormone deficiency or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The hormone is also used on an investigational basis in a variety of disorders causing short stature, as well as in the aged and in several catabolic conditions. It is likely that with time the indications for treatment with this hormone will be increased.

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L-glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). It contribute in various physiological conditions such as brain development, synaptic plasticity, memory and learning. However, increasing of the extracellular glutamate concentration and overactivation of glutamate receptors in particular ionotropic subtypes leads to excitotoxicity which is the fundamental pathological pathway of neuronal injury. Due to lack of extracellular enzymatic destruction, the removal of released glutamate is achieved through the excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) which are distributed in glia that tightly surround the synaptic clefts, as well as in neurons. EAATs which known as Na+-dependent high-affinity glutamate transporters are the main responsible for maintaining extracellular glutamate concentration below excitotoxic levels. Moreover another membrane transporters regulating the flux of glutamate in different areas of the CNS. This system is cystine-glutamate exchanger (XCG-) that is Na+-independent system. Dysfunction of EAATs has been implicated in both acute insults e.g. stroke, trauma and chronic neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders e.g. amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, the purpose of this review article is to explain the pathway of glutamate biosynthesis, its release into CNS, discribing and elaborating Glutamate transporters, activites and their role in excitoxcity in CNS.

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Antibiotics usage in domestic animals, as antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) was considered from middle of 1950 onwards. Antibiotic feed additives as growth promoters have long been supplemented to animal food in very low amounts (5 to 20 ppm) to stabilize the intestinal microbial flora, improve the general performances, and prevent some specific intestinal pathogens. The widespread use of antibiotics as AGPs is playing a significant role in the emergence of resistant bacteria. The resistant bacteria in animals due to antibiotic exposure can be transmitted to human through the consumption of their products, from close or direct contact with animals, or through the environment and consequently, the increased concern about the potential for antibiotic resistant bacteria was led the European ::::union:::: and the United States regulations banning the use of AGPs in animal food since 2006. Various studies always look for a suitable replacement antibiotics to substitute to preserve the valuable role of these compounds. Extensive efforts on these alternatives have been started in last decades and some of these alternatives such as probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, ionophores, acidifier, organic acids, medicinal herbs and phytogenic can be pointed out. Hence, the aim of this review is to evaluate the antibiotic replacement strategy particularly medicinal herbs and their mechanisms as new growth and health promoters.

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The Iranian elderly population is rapidly growing. Currently more than 5 million Iranians are over 60 years of age which corresponds to nearly 7.26 percent of the population of the country. It is estimated that more than 10 percent of the population of the country will be elderly in the forthcoming twenty years. Structural and physiological changes which occur in the elderly cardiovascular system include: stiffness of the vasculature, decreased relaxation capacity of the heart during diastole, decreased efficiency of cardiac contraction during exercise, weakened heart muscle response to stimulation by adrenaline, and orthostatic hypotension. In the elderly people we are confronting with increased frequency of cardiovascular diseases especially myocardial infarction, stroke, isolated systolic hypertension, calcific aortic stenosis, orthostatic hypotension, and syncopal attacks due to sick sinus syndrome, complete heart block, atrial fibrillation or other rhythm disorders. Alteration in cardiovascular status in the elderly has undesirable effects on their quality of life and longevity. Myocardial infarction is the most common cause of death in the elderly however cardiac arrhythmias and valvular heart disease are other important cardiovascular disease in the old people. Diagnosis of these disorders in the elderly requires special consideration since coexistence of structural/functional changes in the old age with cardiovascular disease would alter the classic features of these disorders and result in delay in their appropriate management. Biological aging as evaluated by reduced telomere length has a strong impact on the incidence of cardiovascular disorders especially coronary heart disease and chronic heart failure. This phenomenon could possibly explain interindividual susceptibility to cardiovascular disorders.

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Low back pain (LBP) is a common and complicated disorder which is influenced by a number of factors, among them is the lack of spinal stability provided by muscle contraction. One of the most important muscles which has a role in spinal stability is musculus transversus abdominis. A literature search for the period of 2000-11 was performed in PubMed, ProQuest, Science Direct, Thomson, EMBASE, OVID, CINAHL and MEDLINE databases using musculus Transversus Abdominis, ultrasonography, chronic nonspecific low back pain as keywords. Nineteen articles were selected according to the inclusion criteria of the study. Evidences demonstrated that thickness of transversus abdominis reduces in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain (LBP) and ultrasonography seemed to be a valid and highly reliable instrument for measuring thickness of transversus abdominis in patients with LBP and healthy subjects on different positions and states. Studies demonstrated that there are adequate evidences to confirm the merit of ultrasonography in the assessment of musculus transversus abdominis in patients with chronic LBP and healthy subjects.

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Tissue engineering is based on three main factors including scaffolds, cells and growth factors. Natural scaffolds derived from decellularized tissues and organs have been successfully used in tissue engineering. Decellularization studies have shown that natural scaffolds which maintaine their main structure and properties could be a suitable tool for studying cellular behaviors and preparation of such scaffolds is an important part of future research in biology that may have extensive applications in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Blastema tissue which is produced after injuries in some organisms has embryonic cell characteristics, and can be a suitable model for evaluation of cell behaviors in various tissues. In this review, the process of decellularization, process involved in preparation of 3D scaffolds derived from extracellular matrix of various tissues including cartilage, bone, gingiva, aorta and bladder, and assessment of their interactions with blastema tissue under in vitro conditions are discussed.

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Neurodegenerative diseases cause a range of neurological disorders in the central nervous system. Todays researchers emphasize the pivotal role of apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases. Given that injured central nervous system has limited regenerative capacity, it is of extreme importance to limit the damage by inhibition of neuronal death. During the past decade, considerable progress has been made in understanding the process of apoptosis at molecular level. Also, according to the understanding of the mechanisms of apoptosis, several studies have examined the possible effects of neuroprotective compounds for reducing or inhibiting neuronal apoptosis. In this review article, it has been attempt to review the role of apoptosis in the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases. Also, an overview has been made in the field of neuronal apoptosis inhibitor with neuroprotective compounds in human and experimental models of neurodegenerative diseases.

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Free radicals are unstable molecules in reaction with other molecules lead to a variety of injuries and illnesses. However, to prevent the injuries, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants react with free radical in various forms. Free radicals and antioxidant enzyme acts by various mechanisms, although age, gender and physical activity affects on these reactions. Different responses and adaptation are experienced to oxidative stress among women and men, young, elderly, subjects with physical fitness and untrained subjects. The present article reviewed the effect of oxidative stress due to exercise-induced adaptations.

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Several medicines are used in the nervous system disorders. Since there are several adverse effects of neurological medicines are reported, traditional and complementary medicine itself as new alternative regiment, which require further knowledge about the herbal medicine which the core center of complementary medicine. Lavandula angustifolia with the formal name of Lavandula Officinalis has many effects including widespread effect on central and peripheral nervous system, including anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptosis, antioxidant, antimutant, and neuroprotective effects. It shows analgesic effects and can alleviate pain, tolerance and dependency similar to morphine. Lavandula angustifolia has anti - inflammatory effect. Also this plant affects on cellular mechanisms like oxidative reactions (decrease of oxidative stress), apoptosis (anti - apoptosis), and nitric oxide production decrease of no production), anti - mutation and anti - cancer by this plant is reportd. It seems that effects of Lavandula are mediated through Calcium-Calmodulin and its kinase dependent.

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Catalase is the one of the most important antioxidant enzymes that is found abundantly in liver and kidney. The alteration in activity and function this latter enzyme are widely investigated in various types of cancer to understand the cancer mechanism and its treatment. The changes in the catalase activity levels in a variety of cancer cells is as a specific property of tumor tissues due to the reducting catalase activity at mRNA level. In this review, various reports that examined the alterations in catalase activity and resistance to chemotherapy and its complications in the literature are summarized and discussed. Due to the important role of hydrogen peroxide in various stages of cancer process, catalase alters this process by detoxification of hydrogen peroxide. Chemotherapy increase free radicals to destroy the tumor cells, then, catalase activity reduced their impact on cancer cells. On the other hand, it might be concluded that production of drug resistance in chemotherapy is resulted due to increasing catalase activity. Therefor it seems catalase has contradictory influence on the treatment and development of cancer.

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Color vision deficiency (CVD) is a defect of vision with disability to distinguish colors. Color vision deficiency can be divided into the two categories, congenital and acquired. Congenital color vision deficiency divided into anomalous trichromacy, dichromacy and monochromacy. The most common congenital CVD was deuteranomalous that mode of inheritance is X linked recessive occurring mostly in males. Acquired CVD can occur as a direct result of illness or any related medicine. Color perception changes in acquired CVD may be secondary to primary ocular disease, drug side effect, or serious systemic disease such as diabetes. Dystrophy of cone, types of maculopathy, crystalline lens changes associated with aging, diabetes, glaucoma, optic nerve diseases and traumatic brain injuries can cause CVD. For acquired CVD, type of defect may not be easy to classify; nevertheless, predominantly is tritanopia and type and severity of the defect fluctuates during of disease. It has been suggested that human evolution to industrialized civilization has led to an increased prevalence of CVD in most population. An acquired CVD can reflect a deficiency in color information processing at anywhere along the related visual pathway, from the photoreceptors to the cortex. Sometimes, assessment of color vision can be helpful to detect a visual impairment in early stages.

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Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system. Despite extensive investigations, many aspects of etiology and pathophysiology remain unclear. In multiple sclerosis patients, immune system reacts against autologous proteins in the myelin membrane. Most evidences support the hypothesis that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to disease development. But after the failure of genetic findings to explain the reason for the unequal incidence of MS in identical twins, investigators focused further on environmental factors such as vitamin D deficiency, smoking, living in different latitudes and perhaps the most importantly the role of viruses in people whom are genetically susceptible to MS. There is increasing evidence that viruses may play important role in MS pathogenesis following environmental triggers. Recently, studies focused on the role of herpes virus family, especially Epstein-Barr virus, human herpes virus 6 (HHV-6) and Varicella Zoster virus, as the virus is prevalent in society. This review mainly focused on the identification of important viruses with key role in MS the mechanism behind pathogenesis and describes the animal models of MS. The results of researches are shown strong evidence of the virus or antibodies to viral components in active plaques in MS affected patients, but still cannot be stated with certainty that one or more specific viruses are simultaneously trigger the disease. Further studies are required to prove the pathogenesis of viruses in MS.

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Burn is one of the major causes of death and disability in the world. It can cause by heat, chemicals, electricity, sunlight or radiation. More burns caused by fires in buildings, contact with boiling water, steam, liquids and flammable gases. Accelerating the process of healing has always been of interest to practitioners because these injuries are usually takes long time to be healed. Therefore, proper treatment and care of this type of wound required to accelerate healing, prevent infection and chronicity. In traditional medicine, due to the high vegetation diversity and breadth of our country, the use of herbs for burns healing and lesions of various etiologies, has been intesified. Various studies on burn wound healing properties of medicinal plants have been performed. In this article, we refered to reliable sites for evaluating of 10 plants including Amebia euchroma, Green Tea, Hypericum perforatum, Centella asiatica, Scrophularia striata, Aloe vera, Cydonia Oblongae seeed, Malva sylvestris, Calendula officinalis and Myrtus to compare the restorative properties of a number of important medicinal plant flora of Iran on accelerating the process of wounds healing of burn in order to provide effective medicinal plant sources are addressed.

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Aging is an inevitable process, which is associated with the development of various diseases such as cardiac hypertrophy. Hypertrophy can occur in both pathological and physiological form. Both types can be divided into a variety of eccentric and concentric types. In the present review, we present the effects of aging and exercise on patological and physioligac cardiac hypertrophy, oxidative stress and some of the mitogen-activated protein kinases with using 79 articles which acceable in pubmed and SID indexing which published during 1976-2016. If the age is associated with inactivity, leads to pathological heart hypertrophy. Meanwhile, the role of the protein family of kinases activated with mitogen and oxidative stress is important. Adolescence, if accompanied by low activity, can lead to increase oxidative stress through mitochondrial dysfunction. Oxidative stress can affect the activity of MAPKs. MAPKs have important role in wide variety of biological events, such as proliferation, differentiation, metabolism, mobility, survival and apoptosis. The tipping point of signal transduction and the regulation of these biological events bigin initially by the four MAPK subunits, including extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1 / 2), c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK1, -2.3) kinase P38 (A, B, y, S) and large MAPKs (BMKs or ERK5s). This paper focuses on two types of ERK1 / 2 and P38 that play an important role in the development of cardiac hypertrophy. ERK1 / 2 and P38 amounts change with aging. These changes are associated with the development of pathological hypertrophy. Sports activities can control the pathological pathway of hypertrophy and can lead to physiological hypertrophy. Exercise can control or reduce oxidative stress, ERK1 / 2 and P38 and ultimately can affect cardiac hypothyroidism.

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Adjuvants are an essential component of modern vaccines. An adjuvant is an entity added to a vaccine formulation to ensure that robust immunity to the antigen is inoculcated. The adjuvant is typically vital for the efficacy of vaccines using subunit (pepdids, proteins and virus like particles) and DNA antigens. Furthermore, these components are used to reach the current new goals of preventing and/ or treating chronic infectious diseases and cancers. This review focuses on formulation aspects of adjuvants, safety considerations, progress in understanding their mechanisms of action and also their side effects with using 97 articles are acceceble in pubmed central and google scholar indexing which published during 1980-2016. Adjuvants can be broadly divided into two classes, based on their principal mechanisms of action; the first class are vaccine delivery systems that generally particulate and mainly function to target associated antigens into antigen presenting cells. The others are immunostimulatory adjuvants that predominantly derived from pathogens and often represent pathogen associated molecular patterns which activate cells of the innate immune system. Adjuvants induce cellular and humoral responses, in particular neutralizing antibodies that able to inhibit the binding of pathogens to their cellular receptors. Efficient Th1-immunity-inducing adjuvants are highly in demand. The adjuvants promote good cell-mediated immunity against subunit vaccines that have low immunogenicity themselves. However, attempts to develop a new generation of adjuvants, which are essential for new vaccines, is important, but their use is limited because, little is known about their mechanisms of action and health risks.

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The kangaroo care method in newborn is a way of protecting the baby through skin to skin contact between newborn and their parents. This review study was done by using the keywords including kangaroo mothre care, neonatal, skin to skin contact and preterm. All related articles were published in Pubmed, Sience direct, Google scholar, SID, and Magiran were studied during 2000 to 2016. Finally, 36 articles were reviewed which were similar according to objectives, method of work, sample size, analysis method, and conclusion. Reviewing the selected articles showed that skin to skin contact among newborn and their parents regulated the body temperature of the neonate, increased the newborn's immune system, reduced infection and mortality rate, regulated heart and respiratory rate, increased the growth and weight gain in low birth weight neonates, reduced the stress and crying, increased prolong and stable periods of sleep, and also creates an emotional bond between the parents and the neonates. Kangaroo care method not only helps to care for the early stages of growth of premature neonate, but also increases the general health of the newborn and mother. This care can be used as an inexpensive and highly beneficial method for neonate's growth and health in human.

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Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic and multiphasic autoimmune disease which affecting the nervous system. Recently, neurotrophic factor secreting cells have been proposed as one of the best sources for cell therapy in MS disease. Therefore, this review study was done with aimed to introduce neurotrophic factor secreting cells and the role of neurotrophic factors in the treatment of MS. The present study, based on the Systematic Review and using multiple sclerosis, neurotrophin and cell therapy keywords, 98 articles were searched from various databases including Pubmed, SID, Springer, SinceDirect Magiran, Web of Sciences and the Google Scholar. After removing irrelevant and repetitive articles, 50 articles were selected. The results of these studies showed that cell-based therapies in MS have been designed with the aim of replacing destroyed cells or with the goal of neuronal support using neural growth factors. Neurotrophic factors secreting cells with the ability to migrate to neurological lesions and secretion of neurotrophic factors can play a major role in supporting neural tissue and preventing its destruction. These factors, through tyrosine kinase receptors, have a variety of effects on the development and proper functioning of neurons. On conclusion, neurotrophic factor secreting cells due to the secretion of a wide range of neural growth factors which required for neural development might be one of the ideal cell sources for cell-based therapy in MS disease.